MHI 08 Exam Ready Flashcards

Comprehensive Environmental History Exam Flashcards

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UNIT 1: NATURE-HUMAN INTERFACE

How did the relationship between humans and nature change with the emergence of humans?

It became qualitatively different. Humans developed the unique ability to influence and mould nature to their needs, a process that became more complex over time.

According to Raymond Williams (as cited in the text), what is "nature"?

'The material world itself, taken as including or not including human beings.' It is also used interchangeably with "environment" in this unit's context.

What was the initial mode of sustenance for the first humans, and what were the first artefacts made for?

Like other animals, their initial mode was hunting and gathering. The first artefacts, made of stone (Palaeolithic Culture), were designed to assist in this quest for food.

What key capability did the cultivation of cereals give to early agricultural societies?

The long shelf-life of cereals encouraged accumulation of surplus, which was a principal cause for social stratification and the emergence of complex societies.

What was the qualitative and epoch-making shift in the nature-human interface during the Industrial Age?

The shift from animate (human/animal) energy to the exploitation of abiotic, non-renewable energy sources (like coal and petroleum) which could be converted into mechanical energy.

UNIT 2: INDIAN LANDSCAPE

What are the four major physiographic divisions of India mentioned in the text?

1) The Himalayas, 2) The Plains of Northern India, 3) The Indian Plateau (Peninsular India), and 4) The Coastal Lowlands.

What is a key significance of the Great Himalaya (Himadri) range for North India's rivers?

It is snow-bound year-round, and its melting glaciers ensure a continuous supply of water to North Indian rivers, especially during the dry summer months.

How did the perception of landscape in ancient Tamil poetry (Sangam literature) reflect the environment?

It used four ecological zones or "tinais" (Mullai, Kurinci, Marutam, Neytal) to represent different landscapes (forest, mountain, pastoral, shore) and their associated moods and deities.

What are the five categories used to classify India's vegetation cover?

1. Moist Tropical Types, 2. Dry Tropical Types, 3. Montane Subtropical Types, 4. Montane Temperate Types, 5. Alpine Types.

How did colonial rule alter the Indian landscape, particularly forests?

Demand for timber (for shipbuilding, railways) led to massive deforestation and the replacement of diversified natural forests with monocultures of commercially viable species like teak.

UNIT 3: SOURCES OF STUDY

What was the central theme of the seminal monograph "This Fissured Land" by Guha & Gadgil?

It portrayed pre-colonial India as a society where resource use was in harmony with nature, managed by the caste system, and argued that the British disrupted this equilibrium.

How has Sumit Guha's work challenged the simple "pre-colonial harmony vs. colonial disruption" narrative?

He used Maratha documents to show that pre-colonial rulers also saw forests as obstacles and that environmental modification (like transforming forests to grassland) was a long-term process, not just a colonial event.

What is the "state-led conservation" argument that counters the view of the British as purely destructive?

This argument, notably from David Hardiman and Richard Grove, suggests that colonial officials (especially Scottish medicos) were the "original greens" who initiated systematic forest conservation policies in India.

What approach did Francis Zimmermann use to reconstruct the ecology of ancient India?

He examined ancient texts, like those on Hindu medicine, to analyze ecological references. He differentiated between 'jungla' (dry lands) and 'anupa' (marshy lands) to understand the ancient environment.

What is the main argument of the Annales School of history, which influenced this field of study?

It advocates for studying history in the wider context of prevailing environmental conditions and long-term processes, rather than just political events and watersheds.

UNIT 4: RESOURCE USE AND HUMAN SOCIETIES

What is the key difference between renewable and non-renewable resources?

Renewable resources (plants, wildlife, solar energy) can regenerate or are in inexhaustible supply. Non-renewable resources (metals, minerals) exist in a fixed quantity and are depleted with use.

What was the most important natural resource put to widespread use by pre-agricultural humans?

Stone. The Palaeolithic period, the longest in human development, is defined by the use of stone for making tools like hand-axes, cleavers, and choppers.

How did the development of agriculture reshape the human-nature relationship and settlement patterns?

It created an assured food supply, leading to permanent settlements. This shifted society from a wandering, hunting-gathering mode to a settled, community-based life.

What dramatic change did the knowledge of iron use bring to agricultural practices?

Iron, especially for ploughshares, allowed humans to cultivate harder, virgin soils beyond the soft alluvial river banks, enabling massive agricultural expansion into new regions like the Ganga-Yamuna doab.

What was a remarkable feature of the Harappan civilization regarding resource use?

The early use of metals, specifically copper and bronze. A range of tools made from these metals equipped the civilization with greater competence in reclaiming and using natural resources.

UNIT 5: HUNTING-GATHERING

What are the primary sources of evidence for understanding prehistoric hunting-gathering societies?

The most plentiful evidence comes from stone tools and implements. This is supplemented by pictorial depictions (rock art) found in caves and shelters, which show aspects of their economy and society.

What are the two major technological traditions of the Lower Palaeolithic stage, and what tools define them?

1. The Sohanian tradition, defined by choppers and flakes. 2. The Acheulian tradition, defined by hand-axes and cleavers.

What major technological shift occurred from the Palaeolithic to the Mesolithic stage?

The shift to producing microlithic tools (small, delicately made blades of stone). These were often attached to wood or bone to create composite tools like spears and arrows.

What major geographical expansion did Mesolithic communities achieve that earlier groups had not?

They effectively colonized the forest-covered alluvial plains of the Ganga valley, a region that had remained largely uninhabited in previous periods due to a lack of stone and dense vegetation.

What do the rock paintings at sites like Bhimbetka reveal about the Mesolithic economy?

They show a diverse economy: hunting scenes with spears and bows, trapping of small game, fishing with nets, and food gathering activities like collecting fruits and honey, often depicting both men and women.

UNIT 6: NOMADIC PASTORALISM

What is the likely origin of pastoralism, as suggested by the text?

It likely originated from hunting-gathering practices, where young animals were captured alive. Taming these animals in captivity for an assured food supply germinated the practice of pastoralism.

What environmental factor is crucial for the emergence of pastoralism?

The availability of grasslands or open wooded areas (browse) for herds to use as pastures. The text notes that even forests with grass cover could support pastoralism.

What is the primary reason nomadic pastoralists are mobile, unlike settled agriculturists?

They depend on nature to replenish pastures. The constant requirement for additional pasture land for their herds makes it imperative for them to keep moving in search of new forage areas.

What kind of relationship existed between nomadic pastoralists and settled agricultural communities?

A symbiotic relationship. Pastoralists received cereals from farmers, while farmers benefited from the animal manure for their fields and could have pastoralists graze their livestock.

What key evidence for early domestication of animals was found at the Adamgarh rock shelter?

Animal bones including the domestic dog, humped cattle, goat, sheep, and pig were found alongside wild animal remains, indicating an economy of both herding and hunting.

UNIT 7: ORIGINS OF AGRICULTURE

What does V. Gordon Childe's term 'the Neolithic Revolution' refer to?

The immense and relatively rapid changes in human social life brought about by the adoption of agriculture and the associated domestication of plants and animals, leading to settled life.

What environmental conditions at the end of the Pleistocene epoch set the stage for agriculture?

Approximately 10,000 years ago, climatic conditions became more or less similar to today's, providing a stable setting for humans to begin domesticating plants and animals.

From where did agriculture first spread into South Asia, and what was the route?

It first began in West Asia (Syria/Palestine) and diffused over Afghanistan, from where it crossed over into the Indus system and Baluchistan.

What is the significance of the Mehrgarh site in Baluchistan?

It provides the earliest clear evidence of agriculture in the subcontinent, with finds of barley and wheat seeds, domesticated goat and sheep bones, and mud-brick houses indicating a settled life.

What is the main difference in early agriculture between eastern India (e.g., Koldihwa) and the Indus region?

The Indus region (and West Asia) was defined by wheat and barley cultivation. The wet monsoon conditions of eastern India made it one of the world's earliest rice-growing cultures.

UNIT 8: RIVER VALLEY CIVILISATION

What was the primary method of agriculture that sustained the Indus Valley (Harappan) Civilisation?

Flood-plain agriculture. They cultivated the soft, fertile alluvial soil deposited along river banks by seasonal floods, particularly after the summer inundation receded.

What is the significance of the finds at Kalibangan and Banwali for understanding Indus agriculture?

The discovery of a ploughed field at Kalibangan and a terracotta model of a plough at Banwali prove that the Harappans used the plough, likely drawn by oxen as draught animals.

What were the two main *rabi* (winter) crops of the Indus Civilisation?

Wheat and barley. Evidence for these goes back to the antecedent phase at Mehrgarh and they continued as the main crops.

What evidence suggests a steady deterioration in the climate and environment as a reason for the decline of the Indus civilisation?

Studies citing increased salinity in Rajasthan's lakes (Gurdip Singh) and theories of post-Pleistocene desiccation, though this view is contested by scholars like Irfan Habib who see no major climatic shift.

What were the 'non-cereal' crops identified at Mehrgarh, showing continuity into the Harappan period?

The Indian jujube (ber) and dates, both represented by stones found in archaeological layers.

UNIT 9: AGRICULTURAL DIFFUSION AND REGIONAL SPECIFICITIES-I

What is the theoretical dichotomy of 'vana/aranya' and 'ksetra/janapada' in early Indian literature?

It represents the perceived opposition between the unknown, unpredictable wilderness (forest) and the predictable world of settled plough agriculturists (field/settlement).

In the post-urban Harappan situation, what were the principal *kharif* crops found at sites like Sibri and Pirak?

Rice and millets (jowar and cheena) were the principal kharif crops, found alongside rabi crops like wheat and barley, indicating a diversified agricultural system.

What two factors are considered the primary causative agents for the second urbanisation in the Gangetic plains?

The transformative potential of iron technology (for clearing dense forests and ploughing heavier soil) and high-yield, wet-rice cultivation which created a larger agricultural surplus.

What is the concept of 'Hydraulic Despotism' proposed by Karl Wittfogel?

The theory that the requirement for large-scale irrigation in arid regions leads to a powerful, centralized, and despotic state that controls water resources, which he applied to the Mauryan Empire.

What new crops were introduced into India during the medieval period, particularly by the Portuguese?

The Portuguese are credited with introducing tobacco, papaya, cashew nuts, and pineapple. Coffee and maize were also introduced in this period.

UNIT 10: AGRICULTURAL DIFFUSION AND REGIONAL SPECIFICITIES-II

What defines the economy of the earliest pre-Iron Age agricultural settlements in peninsular India?

It was an agro-pastoral economy, marked by a mix of millet farming, cattle and sheep pastoralism, and hunting. Pastoralism was often more dominant than agriculture.

What is the ecological concept of 'tinai' in Sangam literature?

It describes different ecological zones (like hills, forests, riverine plains) and the distinct modes of subsistence and communities associated with each, such as shifting agriculture, plough agriculture, and hunting.

What is the distinction between 'Vanpulam' and 'Manpulam' in the Tamil region?

'Vanpulam' refers to non-agricultural stretches (hilly, arid tracts) where subsistence depended on pastoralism, hunting, or dry farming. 'Manpulam' refers to the fertile, riverine agricultural wetlands with advanced plough agriculture.

What was the role of 'brahmadeyas' (land endowments to brahmanas) in early medieval South India?

They became key instruments of agrarian expansion. Brahmanas, as corporate bodies, managed labor, cleared forests, and created irrigation infrastructure, integrating new areas into the peasant economy.

Why is black cotton soil significant in the Deccan, and what is the adage associated with it?

Its moisture-retentive quality is a boon for rain-fed farming. The adage is 'the black cotton soil ploughs itself,' referring to the large fissures that develop in summer, aerating the soil without a plough.

UNIT 11: ENERGY RESOURCES

What is the fundamental distinction between animate and inanimate forms of energy?

Animate energy comes from living beings (human physical power, animal draught power). Inanimate energy comes from non-living sources like the sun (solar), water, wind, and burning biomass (thermal).

What was the first external, inanimate energy source that early humans learned to control?

Fire. By burning dried plant matter (biomass), they employed the energy for heating and cooking, a significant step beyond relying solely on their own physical power.

What invention marked the combination of natural energy and mechanical contrivances for grinding grain?

The waterwheel. Submerged in running water, its rotary movement was transferred via an axle to a millstone, creating a grain mill powered by water energy instead of animal or human energy.

What was the major limitation of early waterwheels and windmills as power sources?

The power they generated had to be utilized on the spot. Transmitting power over any significant distance was inefficient and led to major power loss.

What invention by James Watt in 1765 opened up an entirely new field for energy application?

The rotative steam engine. It enabled steam power to be used to operate rotary machines in factories and mills, moving beyond simple up-and-down piston movements.

UNIT 12: WATER RESOURCES

What percentage of Earth's water is ice-free, fresh water, sustaining all terrestrial and aquatic life?

Hardly 1%. About 97% is saline ocean water, and much of the remaining freshwater is frozen in glaciers and ice caps.

What evidence of advanced water storage and management was found at the Harappan site of Dholavira?

A massive system of reservoirs and tanks with effective bunds and plastered walls, designed to conserve every drop of rainwater in an area with brackish groundwater. It was a true 'jala durga' (water fort).

What was the 'Virdu' method of water conservation practiced in the Rann of Kutch?

An indigenous method to store rainwater afloat on underground saline water. It was based on the knowledge that the density of sweet water is less than that of saline water.

What is the 'Riparian Doctrine' regarding water rights?

The principle that the right to use water from a river belongs only to those whose land directly abuts the river. This theory becomes less viable as demand from non-riparian users grows.

What are 'khareen' structures, developed by Paliwal Brahmins in Rajasthan?

They are rain-fed water storage structures that allow runoff to stand over and moisten a soil bed. This piece of land is then used for growing crops after the water recedes.

UNIT 13: FOREST RESOURCES

What is the etymological difference between the Sanskrit 'jangala' and the modern 'jungle'?

'Jangala' in Sanskrit meant 'dry lands' or open vegetation cover. The modern Hindi/Anglo-Indian 'jungle' came to mean the exact opposite: 'tangled thickets' or dense, closed-canopy forest.

What archaeological evidence suggests the Harappan civilization's dependence on forest resources?

The extensive use of wood for fuel (to fire bricks), and for making objects like toys, tool handles, carts, boats, and beams for roofs and windows.

In the Vedic literature, what is the conceptual difference between 'aranya' and 'vana'?

'Aranya' is the dangerous, alien wilderness to be avoided. 'Vana' is the utilizable forest that interacts positively with the village ('grama'), supplying timber and herbs.

How did the relationship between man and forest change with the development of agriculture?

The forest shifted from being the sole provider of sustenance to an ancillary resource. It was still crucial for fuel, fodder, timber, and other products, but agriculture became the primary food source.

What do the teachings of the Bishnoi sect in Rajasthan illustrate about conservation?

They show a cultural and religious tradition of conservation, with rules prohibiting the cutting of green trees (like the Khejari) and animal slaughter, based on keeping harmony with the local environment.

UNIT 14: METAL & MINERAL RESOURCES

According to Gordon Childe, what were the four major discoveries that defined the development of metallurgy?

1. Malleability (can be shaped by hammering), 2. Fusibility (can be melted and moulded), 3. Reduction from ores (smelting), and 4. Alloy making.

What are the "Seven Metals of Antiquity" upon which all early civilizations were based?

In order of discovery: Gold, Copper, Silver, Lead, Tin, Iron, and Mercury.

Why did the introduction of iron "democratise" agriculture and warfare in the Iron Age?

Iron was one of the commonest elements, making it relatively cheap to produce. This allowed any peasant to afford an iron axe or ploughshare, unlike the more expensive and restricted bronze.

India provides the earliest evidence for which specific metal's production, with furnaces found at Zawar in Rajasthan?

Metallic Zinc. The text *Rasaratnakara* describes its production, and the Zawar process was a highly sophisticated distillation technology for its time.

What is the key difference between a mineral and a rock?

A mineral is a naturally occurring inorganic substance with a definite chemical composition and crystalline structure. A rock is an aggregate (mixture) of two or more minerals.

UNIT 15: MAN-NATURE RELATIONSHIP

What is the core concept of 'Srsti' (Universe) in Indian thought?

'Srsti' is conceived as a living, organic entity where humans are just one component among many. All elements, living and non-living, are interconnected and part of a whole.

What are the 'Pancha Mahabhutas' or the five basic elements of the environment?

Earth (Prithvi), Water (Jal), Fire (Agni), Air (Vayu), and Sky/Space (Akasha). These are considered the essential components of all creation.

How does Indian tradition view the relationship between the microcosm (man) and the macrocosm (nature)?

It sees them as constantly exchanging forms and being interdependent. For example, the fire of nature becomes speech, the sun becomes sight, the wind becomes breath, and so on. Man is an embodiment of nature's elements.

In the context of environmental ethics, what is 'pradushana'?

'Pradushana' means pollution or disharmony, caused by violating the peaceful co-existence of creatures and the material world. It is identified with human greed and selfishness disrupting the natural order.

What role is man awarded in traditional Indian thought regarding the environment?

The role of a steward or guardian, not a master. Man is expected to follow ethical rules and pious practices to take care of all creatures and ensure the flourishing of the natural order.

UNIT 16: CONSERVATION THROUGH AGES

What is the modern definition of conservation, as presented by the World Conservation Strategy?

"The management of human use of the biosphere so that it may yield the greatest sustainable benefit while maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of future generations."

What is the significance of Ashoka's Pillar Edict No. V for environmental history?

Issued in 243 BC, it is one of the earliest historical records of conservation practices. It lists many species of animals as exempt from slaughter and forbids the burning of forests uselessly.

What two core ideas from the Judeo-Christian tradition influenced the Western notion of conservation?

1. The right of exploitation of nature by man, unfettered by serious ethical considerations. 2. The responsibility of stewardship over nature.

Who is credited with first using the term "conservation" in its modern context in the U.S.?

Gifford Pinchot, the chief forester for U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt, who initiated conservation as a national movement.

What are some of the conservation practices advocated in traditional Indian texts like the Puranas?

The Puranas advocate for regular plantation ceremonies ('Vriksha Mahotsave'), with the Matsyapurana equating the plantation of one tree with having ten sons, and they personify trees as divine.

UNIT 18: UNDERSTANDING OF ENVIRONMENT

According to Fernand Braudel, what momentous occurrence signaled a break for the 'biological regimes'?

The Industrial Revolution. He noted that until the 18th century, a "Jungle Book could have been written about almost any part of the globe," but this changed rapidly with industrialization.

What was the central discourse of industrialism regarding resource use?

It was about the revolution in the mode of resource use—transforming resources from one form to another and making it possible to transport them over large distances, away from their places of origin.

What is Alfred Crosby's concept of 'Ecological Imperialism'?

The idea that European colonizers succeeded not just militarily, but by devastating native ecosystems through the introduction of a "Portmanteau Biota" of weeds, animals, and diseases.

How did the acquisition of Diwani rights by the East India Company transform their trade with India?

It allowed them to buy Indian goods without having to pay for them with exported treasure. They could use the land revenue of India itself as profit to fund their "investments" (purchases).

What was the "second disaster" for the Indian economy in the 19th century, following the ruin of agriculture?

The de-industrialization of India. English manufactured goods, especially textiles, flooded the Indian market, wiping out Indian exports and challenging local manufactures in their home market.

UNIT 19: ENVIRONMENTAL AGENDA

What was the core of the British colonial environmental agenda regarding forests?

The conversion and utilization of forest timber as a commodity geared for the market, driven by imperial needs for shipbuilding and railways.

What was the counter-argument by Richard Grove to the view that the British were purely destructive to forests?

He argued that the "original 'greens' in India were in fact colonial officials" (Scottish medicos) who pressed for state-led conservation due to a perceived connection between deforestation and environmental desiccation.

What was the key rationale behind the National Forest Policy of 1952 in post-colonial India?

It reiterated monopolistic state control over forests as a 'national asset,' legitimizing national priorities over local ones. The belief was that private groups wouldn't invest in long-gestation tree crops.

How did the post-colonial forest policy continue the colonial legacy regarding local communities?

It continued the exclusion of local communities and their traditional knowledge from forest management, segregating resource use from resource management and favoring technically trained managers.

How did the British revenue policy impact forests?

The orientation was to increase cultivation to maximize revenue. Forests were therefore treated as an unnecessary obstacle to agricultural expansion and were cleared to bring more land under the plough.

UNIT 20: RESOURCE MANAGEMENT: FORESTS

What were the two primary imperial needs that drove the massive deforestation in colonial India?

1. Durable timber (especially teak and sal) for shipbuilding and later, 2. A vast number of sleepers for the expansion of the railway network after 1853.

What was the main purpose of the Indian Forest Act of 1878?

It cleared confusion about forest ownership by asserting state monopoly, and attempted to obliterate the customary rights of rural and tribal communities over forest resources.

How did the Forest Policy of 1894 view the relationship between agriculture and forests?

It placed agriculture first. It stated that wherever an effective demand for cultivable land existed, forest area should be relinquished "without hesitation," making forest preservation secondary.

What are the three categories into which the 1878 Forest Act classified forests?

1. 'Reserved' Forests (full state control, rights extinguished), 2. 'Protected' Forests (state control, rights recorded but not settled), and 3. 'Village' Forests (under village control).

What was the major departure in the National Forest Policy of 1988 compared to the 1952 policy?

It shifted the focus away from industrial/commercial exploitation. The 1988 policy stated that forests were meant to conserve soil and environment and meet the subsistence needs of local people first.

UNIT 21: RESOURCE MANAGEMENT: WATER

What was the 'sharp break' in irrigation technique introduced by the British in the 19th century?

The introduction of perennial canal irrigation. They built permanent head works (barrages and weirs) to divert river water year-round, as opposed to the seasonal, diversionary nature of most pre-colonial canals.

What is the "standard environmental narrative" regarding India's water management systems?

It's a narrative that views pre-colonial India as a time of harmonious, community-managed water systems, which were then destroyed by the intervention of the centralized, technocratic colonial (and later, post-colonial) state.

What is the core idea behind the "Inter-Linking of Rivers" project (National Water Grid)?

To transfer water from supposedly "surplus" river basins (like the Ganga and Brahmaputra) to the water-stressed or "parched" regions of central and southern India through a massive network of canals.

What is the central question in the "Big Dams vs. Small Dams" debate?

Whether the ostensible benefits of large dams (in providing water and power) are worth the price of their environmental damage and the social disruption they cause to indigenous and other communities.

What is the legal mechanism under the Indian Constitution for settling inter-state water disputes?

Under Article 262, the central government can constitute a tribunal to adjudicate the dispute. The Inter-state Water Dispute Act (1956) provides the framework for this process.

UNIT 22: DEVELOPMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS

What is the 'mainstream view' of development critiqued in the text?

A model based on replicating Western history: a mechanistic worldview, a shift from agriculture to industry, sustained economic growth, and a democratic state, all seen as a universal, unilinear path.

What is the concept of "sustainable development" as advocated by the Brundtland Report (WCED)?

Development that "meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs." It aims to integrate production with resource conservation.

What is the core principle of 'Deep Ecology'?

It rejects a human-centered (anthropocentric) view and argues for an eco-centric one. It holds that all parts of nature (ecosystems, species) have an intrinsic right to exist, independent of their usefulness to humans.

What is the central argument of 'Social Ecology' as founded by Murray Bookchin?

That "all ecological problems are social problems." It argues the environmental crisis is caused by domination *within* human society (rich/poor, men/women), which is then projected as domination *of* nature.

What is the main argument of Eco-Feminism?

It posits that the institution of patriarchy, coupled with capitalism, is the root cause of the environmental crisis, as it parallels the domination and exploitation of women with the domination of nature.

UNIT 23: BIODIVERSITY

What are the two main ways to conserve biodiversity, and what is the difference?

1. *In-situ* conservation: Protecting species in their natural habitats (e.g., National Parks, Biosphere Reserves). 2. *Ex-situ* conservation: Conserving species outside their natural habitats (e.g., botanical gardens, zoos, gene banks).

Why is India considered a 'Vavilov Centre'?

It is one of eight centers of high crop genetic diversity identified by Russian botanist N.Y. Vavilov. India is the origin point for at least 166 crop species and 320 wild relatives of cultivated crops.

What are the two 'Megadiversity Hot Spots' identified in India?

The North-eastern Himalayas and the Western Ghats. These regions have exceptional species diversity and endemism but are also under severe threat of habitat modification.

What is the most important value of biodiversity for a country like India, according to the text?

It meets the basic survival needs of a vast number of people. Many traditional communities depend directly on surrounding natural resources for food, shelter, medicine, and fertilizers.

What is a 'People's Biodiversity Register' (PBR)?

A concept to involve local communities in conservation by documenting their traditional wisdom and knowledge about the biodiversity in their area, empowering them in its management.

UNIT 24: ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES AND PATENTS

What are the two key international agreements that are in conflict regarding environmental resources and patents?

1. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). 2. The Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) agreement.

What fundamental right does the CBD grant to nations?

It affirms the sovereign right of nation-states to control their own biological resources, rejecting the 'common heritage of mankind' argument previously used to justify free access by colonial powers.

How does the TRIPS agreement contradict the CBD's principles?

TRIPS mandates patent protection for biological processes and products, privatizing knowledge and genetic material. This runs counter to the CBD's goals of national sovereignty and equitable benefit sharing from those resources.

What is 'bio-piracy', and what is an example from the text?

Bio-piracy is the act of patenting traditional knowledge or biological resources from other countries without acknowledging the source or sharing the benefits. The patenting of the anti-fungal properties of the Neem tree is a classic example.

What does a 'sui generis' system for plant variety protection mean?

It means a unique, self-generated system specifically designed for its purpose. In the context of TRIPS, it allows countries to create their own system for protecting plant varieties instead of using standard patents.

UNIT 25: ALTERNATIVES

What was the core of the Gandhian model of development as an alternative to the industrial model?

It was a village-centric model, prioritizing village industries and self-contained societies (Swaraj) over heavy industry and centralized, speedy modernization.

In *Hind Swaraj*, what is Gandhi's primary critique of machinery?

That it is the "chief symbol of modern civilisation" which has impoverished India by destroying its handicrafts and enslaving its people in mills.

What was the immediate event that sparked the Chipko Movement in Gopeshwar in 1973?

The State Forest Department auctioned local ash trees to a sports goods company, leading peasants (especially women) to physically embrace the trees to prevent their felling.

What was the core ecological claim of the Chipko Movement, shifting from simple resource rights?

That the main products of the forests are not timber or resin, but soil, water, and oxygen—the foundations of the entire agri-pastoral economy.

How did the Chipko Movement reframe the "development vs. ecology" debate?

It rejected the false dichotomy, arguing that true, genuine development can *only* be based on ecological stability, which ensures a sustainable supply of vital resources for all.