Rapid Revision!! MHI-107 History of Indian Economy-2 c. 1700-2000

भारत का औपनिवेशिक इतिहास: संक्षिप्त नोट्स

⏰ Final Hour Prep! Short Notes for MHI-107 – UNIT 1 to 27 (Exam: 08 July 2025)

Here are your rapid revision notes for UNIT 1 to UNIT 27 (MHI-107).:

Unit 1: The Eighteenth Century in Indian History

  • Toh, is unit mein 18th century ki kahani hai. Basically, do bade changes hue the:
    • Pehle toh, Mughal Empire tootne laga aur chhote-chhote regional states ban gaye.
    • Aur phir, British East India Company ki power badhni shuru ho gayi Plassey (1757) aur Buxar (1763) ki ladaiyon ke baad, aur woh trading company se ruling power ban gaye.
  • Log pehle sochte the ki yeh century bas 'chaos aur anarchy' (loot-paat aur gadbadi) ka period tha, par ab historians (jinhone 'region-centric' approach use kiya hai) bolte hain ki aisa nahi tha.
  • Regional states mein robust cultural life aur economic activity chal rahi thi. Jaise Lucknow, Hyderabad culture ke bade centers bane; Banaras banking aur commerce ka hub tha.
  • Yeh century actually ek 'long century' tha (1680s se 1820s tak) jismein Mughal fragmentation ke baad regional polities stable hue aur phir British Company ka dominance badha. Economic growth bhi continue hui, especially Bengal mein.

Unit 2: Historiography of the Colonial Economy

  • Is unit mein main focus British Rule ke economic impact pe debate hai.
  • Colonial viewpoint wale kehte hain ki British rule se India mein shanti (Pax-Britannica), railways, irrigation, education aayi, aur overall fayda hua.
  • Nationalist viewpoint wale (Dadabhai Naoroji, R.C. Dutt jaise) iske bilkul ulte the. Woh kehte the ki British rule ne India ko gareeb banaya, yahan se 'drain of wealth' (dhan ki nikaasi) hui, 'de-industrialisation' (industries ka khatam hona) hua, aur kisanon par tax ka bohot bojh pada.
  • Marxist scholars bhi is cheez ko colonial exploitation ke roop mein dekhte hain.
  • Recent studies mein ecological history aur capitalism ke potential jaise naye themes bhi explore kiye ja rahe hain. De-industrialisation par bhi naye arguments aaye hain.

Unit 3: Merchants and Markets 1757-1857

  • Unit 3 India ke trading economy ki baat karta hai 17th aur early 18th century mein. India tab world ka principal supplier tha textiles ka, aur Indian Ocean trade mein bohot important tha.
  • Yahan ke sarrafs (money-changers) aur hundis (bills of exchange) ka network bohot sophisticated tha, jo long-distance trade aur revenue payments ko support karta tha.
  • Phir aaya 18th century ka crisis jab Mughal Empire weak hua, aur European private trade badhni shuru ho gayi. Surat jaise bade ports ka decline hua.
  • Early colonial rule mein, India ka trade raw material exports ki taraf shift ho gaya, aur European traders ka dominance badh gaya (jaise Agency Houses).
  • De-industrialisation debate bhi is unit mein introduce ki gayi hai, ki kaise British rule ne India ki traditional industries ko affect kiya.

Unit 4: Colonialism and Trade 1857-1947

  • Is unit mein 1857 se 1947 tak India ke trade aur markets ki kahani hai. India ki economy global economy se integrate ho gayi, jismein Britain ka dominance tha.
  • India ka foreign trade bohot badha (exports aur imports dono). Raw cotton aur food grains ka export bhi badha.
  • Nattukottai Chettiars, Marwaris, aur Shikarpuris jaise Indian merchant communities ne bhi apna naam kamaya, especially Asia ke dusre parts mein trade karke.
  • Inki success ka raaz inke community structure, accounting system, aur partnership arrangements mein tha, jo inhe European capital ke saath compete karne mein help karta tha .
  • Lekin, unit yeh bhi kehta hai ki colonialism ne India ki trade aur industrialisation ki poori potential ko rok diya .

Unit 5: Agrarian Policy and Land Rights

  • Unit 5 Britishers ki 'agrarian policies' (kheti se related policies) ke bare mein hai, jo unhone India mein apna control banaye rakhne aur revenue generate karne ke liye implement ki .
  • Sabse pehle Permanent Settlement (1793) Bengal mein laya gaya, jismein zamindars ko zameen ka hereditary owner bana diya gaya aur unka tax hamesha ke liye fix kar diya gaya . Iska maqsad tha ek stable rural aristocracy banana aur investment ko encourage karna .
  • Lekin, Thomas Munro jaise officials ne isko challenge kiya, kehkar ki yeh system har jagah suitable nahi hai. Iske baad Temporary Settlements aaye, jismein zameen ka survey hota tha aur tax rates ko regularly revise kiya jata tha .
  • In policies se land rights aur rural society mein bade changes aaye . Jaise Madras aur Bombay mein raiyatwari settlements ne individual land titles ko badhaya .

Unit 6: Patterns of Commercialisation

  • Is unit mein India mein 'commercialisation' (vyaparikaran) ke patterns ki baat hai. Ye kehta hai ki commercialisation British rule se pehle bhi thi, Mughal period mein bhi kaafi advanced thi .
  • 18th century mein, coastal regions jaise Bombay, Madras, Calcutta bade commercial hubs ban gaye, aur European trading companies bhi isme involved ho gayi .
  • British Imperialism ke saath commercialisation aur tezi se phaili, especially railways ke network aur plantation economy (tea, coffee, indigo) ke through .
  • Lekin, commercialisation ka impact alag-alag regions aur logon par different tha, aur inequality bhi badhi .

Unit 7: The Question of Agrarian Growth and Stagnation

  • Unit 7 mein 1850-1947 ke dauran India mein agricultural production ki growth ya stagnation par debate hai .
  • Nationalist historians (Dadabhai Naoroji, R.C. Dutt) kehte the ki colonial period mein agriculture stymied thi, production population ke hisaab se nahi badhi, aur late 19th century ki famines iska seedha natija the .
  • Revisionist historians (M.D. Morris, Tirthankar Roy) ne is view ko challenge kiya. Woh kehte the ki agricultural output mein substantial growth hui, especially commercial crops mein, aur colonial state policies ne positive role play kiya .
  • Yeh debate agricultural statistics ki interpretation par bhi bohot depend karti hai. George Blyn ka kaam important hai, par uski accuracy par bhi questions uthaye gaye .
  • Overall, Sumit Guha jaise scholars ke estimates se pata chalta hai ki 19th century mein per capita output mein decline aaya tha .

Unit 8: Currency

  • Is unit mein India ke modern monetary system ki kahani hai, jo colonial rule mein British interests ke liye develop hua tha .
  • Mughal Empire ke time mein ek sophisticated tri-metallic system (gold, silver, copper coins) thi, jismein sarrafs aur free coinage ka role tha .
  • English East India Company ne 17th century ke end mein apne coins mint karna shuru kiya (Bombay, Madras), aur 1717 mein isko official permission mili .
  • 1835 mein, silver rupee ko legal tender bana diya gaya .
  • Lekin, 1870s ke baad silver ki value mein sharp fall aaya, jisse currency problems badh gayi. Herschell Committee ne private silver minting band karne aur rupee ki exchange rate fix karne ki recommendation di .
  • Council Bills mechanism ko use kiya gaya tha India se wealth Britain transfer karne ke liye, aur isne India ko gold milne mein limit kar diya .

Unit 9: Drain of Wealth Debate

  • Is unit mein 'Drain of Wealth' (India se Britain ko dhan ki nikaasi) par puri debate hai, jise Dadabhai Naoroji ne 1867 mein highlight kiya tha .
  • Nationalists (Naoroji, R.C. Dutt) ka main argument tha ki India se 'unrequited export surplus' (jiske badle kuch nahi milta tha) aur 'Home Charges' (Britain mein Government of India ke kharche) ke roop mein wealth drain ho raha tha, jo India ki poverty ka main reason tha .
  • Critics (colonial apologists, liberal economists) ne is argument ko reject kiya, kehkar ki drain negligible tha, aur India ko British rule se peace, railways aur development ka fayda mila .
  • Sunanda Sen ne nationalist view ko support kiya, kehkar ki accounting transfers se unproductive debt ko productive dikhaya gaya, aur isse income contraction hui .
  • Recent arguments mein Tirthankar Roy ne drain ko 'trivial' kaha , jabki Utsa Patnaik ne calculate kiya ki 1765 se 1938 tak $45 trillion India se gaya .

Unit 10: Colonial Economy and Its Impact

  • Unit 10 British Raj ke economic consequences par hai, aur is par alag-alag historians ki views hain.
  • Deindustrialization ek major point hai. Nationalist kehte the ki traditional industries khatam ho gayin, par Morris D. Morris ne kaha ki nahi hua. Amiya Bagchi ne dikhaya ki secondary sector mein employment ghata . Madras jaise regions mein handlooms ne adapt kiya .
  • Agriculture mein heavy taxation aur land tenure policies se stagnation aaya .
  • Drain of Wealth (jo Unit 9 mein detailed hai) bhi yahan discuss hua hai; Patnaik kehti hain ki export surplus se India modern industry bana sakta tha .
  • Colonial rule ka impact literacy (low enrolment), gender (women ki vulnerability), aur environment (deforestation) par bhi pada .

Unit 11: Famines and Epidemics

  • Is unit mein famines (akaal) aur epidemics (mahamari) ki history hai India mein, aur inka colonial policies se kya connection tha .
  • Pre-colonial rulers famines ke dauran relief provide karte the, jaise food from state stores, migration, employment (Kautilya, Mughal rulers) .
  • Lekin colonial period mein famines zyada widespread aur severe ho gaye, jiska main reason systematic over-assessment of land revenue aur economic exploitation tha .
  • Dadabhai Naoroji aur R.C. Dutt jaise leaders ne British taxation ko famines ka zimmedar thehraya .
  • British government ne Famine Commissions (Smith 1861, Strachey 1880, MacDonnell 1901) set up ki, jinhone revenue reduction, irrigation, public works, aur 'Famine Codes' ki recommendations di .
  • Bengal Famine of 1943 (3 million deaths) ek devastating example hai, jise supply nahi, distribution aur prices ke problem aur colonial policies ki wajah se mana jata hai .
  • Railways se food transport mein help hui, par unhone diseases ko bhi spread kiya .

Unit 12: Forests and Tribal Economies

  • Unit 12 mein forests aur tribal economies ke relationship ki baat hai British Raj ke dauran. Forests sirf tribals ke liye hi nahi, peasants, craftsmen, pastoralists ke liye bhi crucial the .
  • Mid-19th century mein 'scientific forestry' introduce kiya gaya, jiska main maqsad British imperial interests (especially railways ke liye timber) ko pura karna tha .
  • Isse state monopoly (Indian Forest Act 1865, 1878) ban gayi forests par, biodiversity kam hui, aur local logon ke customary rights cheen liye gaye (jaise nistar system) .
  • Local crafts (lac jewellery, etc.) par bhi bura asar pada, jise 'deindustrialisation' ka ek roop mana gaya . Overall, local conditions ko global capitalist system ki needs ke hisaab se manipulate kiya gaya .

Unit 13: Tribal Societies and Colonial Economy

  • Is unit mein pre-colonial tribal societies ki nature aur phir colonial impact ke bare mein bataya gaya hai .
  • Colonial rule ka impact varied tha, par generally negative tha. Tribals ko unki zameen se hataya gaya (land alienation) aur unhein marginal lands par dhakel diya gaya .
  • Woh producers se cheap labour aur raw material ke providers ban gaye . Unse forced labour (begar) bhi karwaya jata tha .
  • Mahajani system (money-lenders ka system) tribal areas mein bohot dominant ho gaya, jisse tribals par debt badha .
  • Is sab ke khilaaf tribal protests aur identity movements bhi hue .

Unit 14: Demographic Change and Agrarian Society in Colonial India

  • Unit 14 India ki population change ki history ko dekhta hai colonial period mein. Main sources decennial censuses (1871-72 se) aur vital registration reports the .
  • Census data mein limitations bhi thi, jaise changing categories aur Sarda Act ki wajah se age recording mein problems .
  • Overall, India ki population late 19th century se steadily badhi .
  • Lekin, rate of growth (ROG) 1881 aur 1921 ke beech kam hui, aur uske baad increase hui. Yeh population growth primarily mortality rates mein kami ki wajah se thi, na ki fertility rates mein badlav se .
  • Regional variations bhi the demographic patterns mein, jaise wet aur dry zones mein differences .

Unit 15: The De-Industrialisation Debate

  • Unit 15 mein 'de-industrialisation' ke issue par detail mein debate hai .
  • Nationalist intelligentsia (Dadabhai Naoroji, Gandhi) ka argument tha ki British cotton textile industry ne India ki traditional artisanal production ko barbaad kar diya, jisse spinners aur weavers ki employment aur income kam ho gayi .
  • Critics jaise Daniel Thorner ne kaha ki 1881-1931 ke census data mein employment mein koi major de-industrialisation nahi dikhti . Morris D. Morris ne bhi is view ko support kiya.
  • Lekin, A.K. Bagchi ne Gangetic Bihar mein secondary sector employment mein significant decline dikhaya .
  • Regional variations the: Bengal sabse zyada affected tha , jabki Madras Presidency mein handlooms ne adapt kiya aur coarse cloth production ki taraf shift kiya .
  • Recent writings (Tirthankar Roy) ne more optimistic view rakhi, kehkar ki handloom sector ne adapt kiya, better technology use ki, aur urban centers mein grow kiya. Phir bhi, artisanal production mein decline undeniable hai .

Unit 16: Crafts Industries and Small Scale Production

  • Is unit mein small-scale industries aur artisanal production par focus hai, jo aksar large-scale industry ke chakkar mein overlook ho jaate hain .
  • 1750 mein India handicrafts aur small-scale industry mein world leader tha, especially textiles mein.
  • Early 19th century mein 'de-industrialisation' hui, jisse workforce mein kami aayi . Bengal mein textiles ka decline bohot dramatic tha .
  • Lekin, late 19th century mein 're-industrialisation' ka trend bhi dikha, jahan output badha production ke reorganization aur technological changes (jaise fly shuttle) ki wajah se .
  • Cotton aur silk weaving mein coarse cloth ki taraf shift hua aur weavers middlemen par zyada dependent ho gaye . Leather industry ne bhi new demands ke hisaab se adapt kiya .

Unit 17: Patterns of Industrialisation

  • Unit 17 mein India mein industrialisation ke patterns hain. Shuru mein (1850s-1914) large-scale industry ka contribution national income mein bohot kam tha (0.17% in 1868-69) .
  • 20th century mein industrialisation tezi se badhi . Is period ko teen hisson mein banta gaya hai:
    • 1850s-1914: Slow growth, mainly jute aur tea industries, British control .
    • 1914-1939: Faster growth, Indian business communities (especially Marwaris) ne new industrial concerns banaye, consumer goods par focus, domestic market ke liye . Steel production bhi shuru hui .
    • 1939-1947 (WWII period): Shift towards heavy chemicals, machine tools, basic aur heavy industries .
  • Managing agency system ne industry ko promote aur manage kiya. European firms (Bird Heilgers) conservative the, jabki Indian firms (Birla Brothers) zyada adventurous the .

Unit 18: Emergence of the Indian Capitalist Class

  • Is unit mein Indian capitalist class ke emergence ki kahani hai. India historically world GDP mein bada contributor tha aur largest exporter tha cotton textiles ka .
  • British colonial rule ke under traditional Indian business community ko side kiya gaya, par woh petty trade aur money lending mein survive kar gaye .
  • Indian business ne 20th century mein real breakthrough kiya, especially World War I ke baad . Cotton textile mills pehle shuru hue .
  • Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI) 1927 mein bani, jo Indian capitalist class ka national organization ban gaya .
  • Indian capitalists ne imperialism ka strong economic critique develop kiya, jaise drain of wealth, trade, finance, currency manipulation .
  • Unit emphasize karta hai ki yeh class 'comprador class' nahi thi, balki 'national movement' ke saath thi .

Unit 19: Labour in Colonial India

  • Unit 19 mein labour practices aur workers ke experiences ki baat hai colonial India mein .
  • Pre-colonial period mein unfree, coerced labour predominant thi, par kuch areas mein high productivity bhi thi .
  • Colonial economy mein 'combined aur uneven development' dikha. Modern industries (jute, cotton, coal, steel) grew, par independence tak industrial workers total workforce ka sirf 8% the .
  • World War II aur uske baad workers ke welfare, social security (Beveridge Plan se inspired), aur trade union rights par discussion badhi .
  • Workers ne trade unions (AITUC) banayi aur wages, dearness allowance, social insurance ke liye protests aur strikes kiye .
  • Trade Union Act 1926 aur Industrial Disputes Act 1947 jaise laws aaye, jinhone labour movement ko legal banaya, par militancy par curb bhi lagayi . Post-independence, labour movement mein political divisions bhi aaye .

Unit 20: Women and Work

  • Is unit mein women workers ke role ki baat hai colonial India mein. Women economic growth ke liye crucial thi, par unhein aksar 'undercounted', 'underpaid', aur 'unskilled' mana gaya .
  • Unki labour ko 'devalued' kiya gaya aur unki earnings ko sirf 'supplementary income' mana gaya .
  • Factory occupations mein 'gendering' thi, aur men aur women ke liye differential wages the .
  • Bombay cotton mills mein zyada single women ya widows kaam karti thi, jabki Madras mills mein worker families se auratein aati thi .
  • Unionisation aur 'family wage' (male as provider) ke idea ki wajah se women ko mill jobs mein kami aayi, especially jab employers ne Maternity Benefit Act 1932 ke benefits nahi diye .

Unit 21: Technology, Science and Empire

  • Unit 21 mein colonialism, science aur technology ka relationship hai. Britishers ki success partly unke scientific knowledge (surveys, mapping) ki wajah se thi .
  • Colonial science ka focus economic aur military benefits (botanical, geological surveys) par tha, pure research aur medical sciences ko neglect kiya gaya .
  • Science education mein bhi problems thi: fund shortage, western models ki blind copying, aur English medium ne percolation roki .
  • Indian response mein 'cultural synthesis' aur 'Indianising Western Science' ki koshish thi (Rommohun Roy, Akshay Kumar Dutt) .
  • Mahendra Lal Sircar ne national scientific institutions (Indian Association for Cultivation of Science 1876) banane ki baat ki .
  • British Raj mein 'apartheid' in science (Indians ko subordinate posts, kam salary) bhi thi .
  • Swadeshi movement ke dauran Japan inspiration bana . Later, M.N. Saha aur Nehru jaise leaders ne large-scale industrialisation aur national planning (National Planning Committee 1938) ko support kiya .

Unit 22: Planning and Development

  • Is unit mein India ki aazadi ke baad ki economic journey ki baat hai, especially Nehruvian era (first three Five-Year Plans) .
  • India ko colonial rule se ek weak economy mili thi (de-industrialisation, slow growth) .
  • Nehru-Mahalanobis strategy ne planned economic development, self-reliance, rapid industrialisation (import substitution), public sector, aur capital goods par focus kiya .
  • Land reforms aur trade union rights ko bhi priority di gayi .
  • Is period mein India ki National Income aur industrial growth rates impressive the colonial period ke comparison mein (GDP 4% annually, industry 7.1%) .
  • Science aur technology education mein bhi massive increase hua .
  • Lekin, public sector inefficiency jaise kuch structural problems baad mein aayi .

Unit 23: Land and Tenancy Reforms

  • Unit 23 mein post-independence India mein land aur tenancy reforms ki baat hai .
  • Main targets the: intermediaries (zamindars) ka abolition, tenancy reforms (security of tenure, rent regulation, tenants ko ownership rights dena), aur landholdings par ceiling lagana .
  • In reforms ka success limited tha overall, kyunki laws mein loopholes the, implementation weak thi, aur landlords ka resistance tha .
  • Lekin, Bengal (Operation Barga) aur Kerala mein yeh reforms zyada successful rahe, jiska main reason strong political will aur peasant movements the .

Unit 24: Agriculture and Industries

  • Is unit mein agriculture aur industry ka performance hai aazadi ke baad. Dono sectors ab bhi 2/3 workforce ko employ karte hain, par national income mein unka combined share ghata hai .
  • Agriculture mein 'Green Revolution' ne land yield badhaya, par iske saath inequality, fiscal burden, aur environmental stress bhi aaye .
  • Industry mein, Second Five-Year Plan (1956-60) ne public sector aur capital/intermediate goods production par emphasis diya (Mahalanobis model) . Small firms aur handicrafts ko bhi protection mili .
  • Purani industries (textiles, jute, tea) ka decline hua, aur kuch foreign capital bahar bhi gaya .
  • Unit conclude karta hai ki development hamesha state-managed nahi thi jaisa plan kiya gaya tha. Green Revolution aur IT booms unanticipated consequences the .

Unit 25: Growth of Modern Banking System, Nationalisation of Banking and Industries

  • Unit 25 mein India ke banking system ki growth aur nationalisation ki kahani hai .
  • Pehle India mein Chettiars, Marwaris jaise merchant-financiers ka dominance tha .
  • Colonial India mein 'modern' banking shuru hui, jismein Agency Houses aur European promoters ka bada role tha. Presidency Banks ne Indians ko foreign exchange banking se door rakha .
  • 1947 tak, India mein kaafi corporate banks aur private bankers the .
  • Aazadi ke baad, 1969 mein bade banks ka nationalisation kiya gaya, jiska maqsad agriculture, small-scale industry, aur priority industrial enterprises ko credit provide karna tha .
  • Lekin, public sector banks ki problems continue rahi, jiske baad 1990s mein reforms aaye .

Unit 26: Globalisation

  • Unit 26 1991 ke economic reforms ka introduction hai, jise 'liberalisation' aur 'globalisation' bhi kehte hain .
  • Reforms ki zaroorat structural constraints aur global opportunities ki wajah se padi .
  • 1991 mein India ko ek major crisis face karna pada, jismein balance of payments ka issue aur country default ke edge par thi .
  • Large public sector (jo pehle industrial development ke liye critical tha) inefficiency ka source ban gaya, bohot saare undertakings losses mein chal rahe the aur overstaffed the .

Unit 27: The Political Economy of Liberalisation

  • Unit 27 liberalisation ki political economy ko explore karta hai.
  • Isme 1970s ke crisis ke causes aur 'Hindu rate of growth' (3.5% per annum) se higher growth rates (5.6% per annum from 1980s) ki taraf shift ko discuss kiya gaya hai .
  • Real GDP growth rates 1980s ke baad badhe .
  • Lekin, unit yeh bhi kehta hai ki structural change utna nahi hua jitna expect kiya gaya tha. Poverty, agriculture par high dependence, aur underemployment jaisi economic backwardness ki features ab bhi thi .

Umeed hai yeh short notes aapke kaam aayenge!

Revision Flashcards (10)

प्रश्न: 18वीं सदी में भारत में दो मुख्य बदलाव क्या थे?

उत्तर: मुगल साम्राज्य का पतन और ब्रिटिश ईस्ट इंडिया कंपनी का उदय।

प्रश्न: औपनिवेशिक अर्थव्यवस्था पर राष्ट्रवादी दृष्टिकोण क्या था?

उत्तर: 'धन की निकासी', 'औद्योगीकरण का पतन' और किसानों पर भारी कर।

प्रश्न: भारत 17वीं-18वीं सदी में किस चीज़ का प्रमुख आपूर्तिकर्ता था?

उत्तर: वस्त्रों का (Textiles)

प्रश्न: 'धन की निकासी' के सिद्धांत को किसने उजागर किया?

उत्तर: दादाभाई नौरोजी (1867 में)।

प्रश्न: औपनिवेशिक काल में अकाल क्यों अधिक गंभीर हुए?

उत्तर: भूमि राजस्व का अत्यधिक मूल्यांकन और आर्थिक शोषण के कारण।

प्रश्न: 'डी-इंडस्ट्रियलाइजेशन' पर राष्ट्रीयवादियों का क्या तर्क था?

उत्तर: ब्रिटिश सूती वस्त्र उद्योग ने भारत के पारंपरिक हस्तशिल्प को नष्ट कर दिया।

प्रश्न: 20वीं सदी में भारत में औद्योगीकरण का पहला चरण (1850-1914) कैसा था?

उत्तर: धीमी वृद्धि, मुख्य रूप से जूट और चाय उद्योग, ब्रिटिश नियंत्रण में।

प्रश्न: भारतीय पूंजीपति वर्ग का राष्ट्रीय संगठन कौन सा बना?

उत्तर: FICCI (Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry) 1927 में।

प्रश्न: स्वतंत्रता के बाद भारत की आर्थिक योजना की मुख्य रणनीति क्या थी?

उत्तर: नेहरू-महालनोबिस रणनीति (नियोजित विकास, आत्मनिर्भरता, भारी उद्योग)।

प्रश्न: 1991 के आर्थिक सुधारों की मुख्य आवश्यकता क्या थी?

उत्तर: संरचनात्मक बाधाएं और भुगतान संतुलन का संकट।

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